TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. What is affirmative action?

"Affirmative action is a system based on merit to eliminate the current effects of prior discrimination. It is race and sex conscious efforts to achieve equal employment opportunity for all race/sex groups in a workforce. Affirmative action has been upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court as a permissible method to reach the goal of fair employment and is not a quota system. Affirmative action is voluntary and is not required by law." (1996 Report to the General Assembly Status of State Agencies' Affirmative Action Plans South Carolina Human Affairs Commission)

What are some myths and misconceptions about affirmative action?

What does the law require?

II. Comparative Statistics

Numerous studies have documented the shortage of minorities and women at the top. One of the most significant was done by the U.S. Department of Labor in 1991, based on reviews of federal contractors among the nation's 1000 largest corporations. The study found that the number of women and minorities progressively diminished, as researchers looked higher. Of those who were assistant vice president or above, only 6.6 % were women. Perhaps the most revealing was the fact that the Labor Department's researchers couldn't pursue their original plan - to study women and minorities in the executive suites. That idea had to be thrown out, the report said, "because there were no minorities or women in those levels. To put it plainly, the glass ceiling existed at a much lower level than first thought."

In 1991, President Bush, as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1991, created the Glass Ceiling Commission. This was a 21-member body appointed by the President and Congressional leaders and chaired by the Secretary of Labor. The Commission worked to identify the barriers and expand practices and policies that promote employment opportunities for the advancement of minorities and women. The Glass Ceiling Commission focused on three areas in particular: the filling of management and decision making positions, the developmental and skill enhancing activities, and the compensation and reward systems.

While researching the Glass Ceiling Commission and their results I found that the majority of information on the Commission was tailored towards women. African Americans were included in their study as were other minority groups, but the major focus dealt with gender discrimination. This is probably due to the fact that the formation of the Glass Ceiling Commission was a part of the Civil Rights Act of 1991. President Bush reluctantly signed the bill but did so in response to the overwhelming pressure that came from the women of America after the monumental Clarence Thomas/Anita Hill Hearings. Thus the Glass Ceiling Commission rode the waves of the American women's anger at gender discrimination and sexual harassment.

"The Glass Ceiling Commission found that white men with four or more years of college were 40% more likely to hold administrative, managerial and executive positions than should be expected, given their numbers in the workforce; similarly educated Black women were underrepresented by 12%, and White women by 33%." (The Affirmative Action Review)

Affirmative Action and...


African Americans

African American Women

White Women

Unfortunately there is limited information when discussing affirmative action with respect to other minority groups. This is probably due to the fact that when discussing affirmative action, women and African Americans are depicted as the sole benefactors. Another indicator is that Hispanics and Asians have only recently been considered as viable demographics in America. The Bureau of Labor Statistics is a good indicator that reflects social change in what racial and ethnic groups count. For this reason the Hispanic section deals with frequently asked questions and the Asians section is an opinion piece.

Hispanics

Asians

III. How has affirmative action changed to reflect social change?

Over the past three decades, minorities and women have made real, indisputable economic progress. Before the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the median black male worker earned only about 60 % as much as the median white male worker; by 1993, the median black male earned 74 % as much as the median white male. The male-female wage gap has also narrowed since the 1960s: median female earnings relative to median male earnings rose from about 60 % during the 1960s to 72 % in 1993. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey)

History and evolution of affirmative action (timeline)

In order to provide a sense of chronology and perspective, a timeline has been provided which addresses the origins, progression, and decline of affirmative action programs in the United States.

IV. Is the present form of affirmative action an effective, credible, and rational policy towards ending longstanding forms of discrimination?

"In our efforts to extend economic and educational opportunity to all our citizens, we must consider the role of affirmative action. I know affirmative action has not been perfect in America -- that's why two years ago we began an effort to fix the things that are wrong with it -- but when used in the right way, it has worked." President Clinton's Commencement Address, University of California at San Diego (1995)

Recommendations and Conclusions

Annotated Bibliography and Links

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